The journal of Religious Studies of AIT is published twice a year in accordance with the requirements and international standards set by the Supreme Attestation Commission before scientific journals.
Religious Education in Azerbaijan’s High Schools within the Context of the Historical Development of Religious Education in a Secular State
Regardless of the state-religion relationship, religious education occupies a unique place in the curriculum of the general education system of the majority of democratic states in the first quarter of the 21st century. The reason is not only the organic connection of religion with a nation’s culture and value system or the increase in the number of citizens separated from their cultural heritage due to the influence of secularization. The inclusion of religious education in national education systems is also related to the interaction of religion and politics in various international conflicts, the global threat caused by numerous radical religious groups in several countries, the transition from mono-confessional societies to multi-confessional societies as a result of globalization, and other social and political factors. While facing common international problems related to religion, each state independently decides on its religious education model in the national curriculum as a part of state policy. Although independent religious subjects are not taught in the public schools of Azerbaijan, religious education is carried out in an integrative form within the framework of social and human sciences by applying the learning about religion model. In addition to subjects like History, Literature, and the Azerbaijani language, where integrated brief information about religion is provided, basic information about religion is taught in the Life Science textbooks, which have been taught in public schools since 2004. The content and framework of this information are prepared based on the educational program (curriculum) for the Life Science subject for secondary schools of the Republic of Azerbaijan. This article examines the historical development process of religious education at the international and local levels as an understudied subject in Azerbaijan. For this purpose, the article investigates the position of religious education in the global educational environment, studies the impact of state-religion relations on the model of religious education, and analyzes the current situation of religious education in Azerbaijan’s secondary schools.
Copyright (c) 2025 i.f.d., dos. Elnurə Əzizova https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0
The Role of A.K. Kazem-Bek in Academic Development of H. Faizkhanov
The controversial issues surrounding the relationship between Muhammad Ali Mirza (Aleksandr Kasimovich) Kazem-Bek (1802–1870) and Husain Faizkhanov (1823–1866), including the period of their acquaintance and the depth of their contacts, are the focus of this article. Researchers have long utilized the limited known sources to extract information about this relationship. In this paper, the author focuses primarily on archival documents, particularly the rewritten manuscripts by H. Faizkhanov during his collaboration with the Imperial Academy of Sciences in St. Petersburg. The author also pays significant attention to reconstructing the chronology of H. Faizkhanov's life during the Kazan period using all available data.By looking at the information in a broader sense, we can disprove some ideas that had been put forward about the part Shihab a-Din Marjani (1818–1889) played in putting M.A. Kazem-Bek and H. Faizkhanov in touch with each other, since this scenario doesn't fit with the formal timelines in the biographies of any of the people involved. In addition, the available information about M.A. Kazem-Bek’s relationship with H. Faizkhanov supports the assumption that it was M.A. Kazem-Bek who contributed to H. Faizkhanov’s decision to move from Kazan to St. Petersburg in order to start cooperation with the Imperial Academy of Sciences, which, therefore, also refutes the earlier hypothesis that H. Faizkhanov’s move to the capital of the Russian Empire was connected with the forthcoming opening of the Faculty of Oriental Languages at the Imperial University of St. Petersburg.
Copyright (c) 2025 i.f.d. Damir Muhetdinov https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0
Fadhil Irawani, the II Shaikh al-Islam of Caucasian Muslims:between Facts and Contradictions
The article explores the possibility of Fazil Irawani, known as the II Shaikh al-Islam of the Administration of Caucasian Muslims, occupying this role. The article also examines the leaders of the Mohammedan religious clergy based in Tiflis from 1823 to 1873, utilizing historical data, calendars, and published articles from that era. In order to create a clear image for the reader, information about the essence of the title of Shaikh al-Islam, its history, and its use in our religious and political context has been introduced. The similarity of their names and certain resemblance between Shaikh al-Islam Akhund Mullah Muhammad, who lived in Yerevan and Mullah Muhammad Fadhil Irawani from Najaf led the author of the book Islam and Shaikh al-Islam in the Caucasus to assume that they were the same person, and as a result, he presented him as the Second Shaikh al-Islam of Caucasian Muslims. Regarding Shaikh al-Islam Akhund Mullah Muhammad, who resided in Yerevan, documentary evidence suggests his birth year was 1771.The article explores the reasons he was called Shaikh al-Islam and reveals evidence suggesting that during the Qajar rule, he was appointed as the official Shaikh al-Islam of the Irawan Khanate. Due to his reputation among the people and his spiritual respect, he was accepted as a Shaikh al-Islam in Tsarist Russia and continued as the head of the Qadavat and Sharia court in the Irawan province. The article demonstrates that they are completely different in many ways: their patronymics, dates of birth and death, places of education, places of burial, and the number and names of their children. In Tiflis, different people were named Muslim leaders when Irawani was claimed to be Shaikh al-Islam. It's clear that each of these two people has identifiable information. In the above-mentioned book, those data were combined into a single image, and all facts and information were attributed to that person.
Administration of Muslims of Transcaucasia
Mullah Muhammad Irawani the shaikh al-Islam of Irawan
Copyright (c) 2025 Hilal Ağamoğlanov https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0
Tafsir Methods of Certain Ayats al-Ahkam in Baydawi’s Work “Anwar al-tanzil wa asrar al-Ta'wil”(In the context of Purity and Worship)
Nasir al-Din Abu Said Abd Allah ibn Umar ibn Muhammad al-Baydawi’s famous tafsir work “Anwar al-tanzil wa asrar al-Ta'wil” is considered an outstanding example in terms of writing style. The scholar, who authored numerous works on Islamic sciences, possessed extensive scholarly knowledge. He was also well-known in disciplines such as fiqh and its methodology. In this regard, the scholar has demonstrated his ability in the interpretation of fiqh or ayats al-ahkam that cover topics such as worship, behavior, morality, halal, and haram. There are different opinions about the number of ayats al-ahkam, the meanings of which are clear to everyone and do not require interpretation or explanation. Religious rites such as purity and worship are considered among the most important obligations that a man must fulfill before his Creator. The article addresses topics related to purification, such as ablution before divine service, ghusl, and tayammum, as well as, prayer which is considered to be the basis and pillar of the divine services, as interpreted in Baydawi’s tafsir from the ahkam ayats perspective. The research focused on the mufassir's interpretation of purity and worship, employing a descriptive style to develop the themes. Baydawi, interpreting such ayats, followed the method and path established by the scholars of tafsir before him and preferred the Shafi’i madhab (school of thought) to which he belonged. As he presented the opinions and thoughts of other scholars and religious leaders on various issues encountered during his interpretation of ayats, the mufassir also took note of their supporting evidence. using verbs such as “qila” (was said) and “ruviya” (was told) in the passive voice. Baydawi had not mentioned the names of those scholars or religious leaders while presenting their opinions and thoughts.) Furthermore, he cited examples from other ayats, along with important sources, such as hadith, ijma, and qiyas, to confirm his views in the interpretation of the mentioned ayats al-ahkam. Additionally, Baydawi enhanced his interpretation of the ayats by referencing the pronunciation of various religious leaders and imams.
Copyright (c) 2025 Ənvər Mustafayev https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0
Criticism of Musa Jarullah Bigiev's view of Universal Salvation by the Journal “Dîn wa Maʿishah”
With the influence of the civil wars that emerged during the reign of Ali, issues such as great sin, the relationship between faith and deeds, destiny, and freedom of will have been discussed since the early periods of Islam. Although the belief in the hereafter, which is one of the core principles of Islam, is accepted by all sects, some issues related to the details have been the subject of dispute throughout history. In this context, the status of non-Muslims in the hereafter and the eternity of hell have also been discussed and important literature has been formed on this subject. According to the general acceptance, those who do not accept Islam, the last divine religion, will remain in Hell for eternity. However, some scholars have argued that Allah will forgive all people and that Hell is not eternal, claiming that all people will eventually go to Paradise. In the last centuries, this forgotten issue was revived by innovators such as Rashid Riḍa and Shihab al-Din al-Marjani. Musa Jarullah Bigiev, one of the innovative thinkers of the twentieth century, also brought this issue to his agenda, which he called universal salvation. Musa Jarullah Bigiev first began to explain his view of universal salvation, which meant that all human beings would eventually go to paradise, in his lectures at Hussainia madrasah. Despite his close friends' warnings that this issue would lead to unnecessary discussion, Musa Jarullah Bigiev affirmed his belief in the issue's importance and its need for explanation. Finally, Musa Jarullah Bigiev began to publish his views on universal salvation in the form of serial articles in the journal Shura, and his arguments were subjected to harsh criticism by the authors of the journal Din wa Maʿishah. The discussions at first, began with journal articles and progressed to treatises. The discussions between Musa Jarullah Bigiev and the writers of the journal Din wa Maʿishah were mainly focused on various issues such as the all-encompassing nature of divine mercy, non-believers and superstitious people going to paradise, and the eternity of hell.
Copyright (c) 2025 i.f.d., dos. Mübariz Camalov https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0
A Brief Overview of Research Findings on Childhood Fears and Phobias
Fear occurs when a person feels physically or psychologically threatened. Childhood experiences, often shaped by fear, can have a lasting impact on our lives. While some fears are beneficial as defense mechanism, others can persist and interfere with our daily lives. Phobias, which are severe and persistent forms of fear, can have a profound impact on an individual’s daily functioning, relationships, and overall well-being. The main element that distinguishes phobia from fear is the high impact of phobia on our daily lives. Phobias are persistent fears about a certain event or thing. Childhood is a common period for phobia development and it is often the result of a combination of factors that create a chain of fear. As the focus of this research, the scientific literature on the effects of fear and phobias on children was reviewed, and the findings of psychologists and thinkers were considered. The research methodology was based on general psychological theories and assumptions about fear and phobia development in childhood. The significance of this study lies in its exploration of the causes of childhood fears and phobias, refining existing research in this area, and providing a foundation for future studies. The purpose of this research is to investigate the factors and conditions that contribute to the emergence of fears and phobias in childhood, with the goal of understanding the psychological dynamics of this period.
Copyright (c) 2024 Aytəkin Cəfərova https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0
On the Sources of Nurettin Topchu’s Philosophy
This article focuses on Nurettin Topchu's philosophy, highlighting the problematic question of who influenced him. Nurettin Topchu’s philosophy is centered on moral issues, he has works in many areas, from politics to religion, from art to history. As a result, he approaches every issue from the perspective of humans. According to Nurettin Topchu, humans start to act the moment they realize that they are in need. The fact that humans realize their need and take action shows that they have the will. What is the purpose of human action? According to Nurettin Topchu, the purpose of action is to reach Allah. Studies on who influenced Nurettin Topchu include his philosophy education in France and the influences of Bergson, Blondel, and Massignon on him. The conclusion reached by the studies, which began by examining these influences, is mainly in the following direction: Western philosophy, particularly Bergson's mysticism, greatly influenced Nurettin Topchu. Blondel’s “thought of movement” dominated his entire philosophy, and he became acquainted with the Sufis through Massignon. To determine Nurettin Topchu's influences, I'll first compare his views to Islamic thought and then to his teachers. The result of the comparison will also answer the question of which tradition of thought Nurettin Topchu can be positioned within. The fact that the concept of movement was developed centuries before Blondel and that the concept of intuition held a central place in Sufi metaphysics centuries before Bergson is either forgotten or overlooked in the studies in question. This article argues that these studies are incomplete and erroneous. I will conclude the article with an analysis of the basic concepts of Nurettin Topchu’s philosophy.
Copyright (c) 2025 f.f.d. Xəyyam Cəlilzadə https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0
Psychological Factors Influencing Violent Religious Radicalization
There are many research studies that examine the role of psychological factors in the radicalization process, particularly, in influencing people to become violent radicals. These studies have focused on the existence of a proclivity for violence in human nature, the possibility of common psychological traits among individuals inclined to radical thoughts and behaviors. This article examines various theories on whether the tendency to violence is inherent in human nature in the first part, and as a result, it claims that the factors driving people to violence do not originate from a single source. It also discusses the theories of Sigmund Freud, Carl Gustav Jung, Albert Bandura, Erik Erikson, Craig A. Anderson and Brad J. Bushman related to the subject. As a result, it is highlighted that childhood experiences, interpersonal social relations, a strict and radical worldview are among the factors that influence the emergence of violence, in addition to those related to human nature. The article also discusses the psychological underpinnings of violent religious radicalization, and states that the process of entering radical groups is multifaceted. It also emphasizes that the reductionist theories, which attempt to explain radicalization process solely through individual psychological characteristics, cannot fully explain the subject. Individuals with unstable psychological characters are more vulnerable to radical thoughts and behaviors. However, it is also necessary to approach the process of radicalization and joining radical groups from socio-political and ideological perspectives. There are certainly types of violence that originate from non-religious sources as well as many radical groups motivated by racial, ethnical, political, and economic and other identitites and vorldviews. However, since they are not included in the scope of the article, they have not been investigated in the present paper.
Psychologial Causes of Religious Radicalization
Copyright (c) 2024 i.f.d., dos. Aqil Şirinov https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0
The Causes and Solutions of Moral Decline in the Quran
People naturally strive for perfection, but achieving this goal requires dedication and effort. A person’s healthy moral and behavioral foundation is essential for reaching the highest peak of perfection. As a social being, it is crucial to maintain control over one’s morals and behavior to interact with others in a respectful manner. The Quran provides a comprehensive guide to morality and behavior, emphasizing the essential principles for a person’s personal and social life. The Quran places great value on the subject of morality, offering a profound perspective on its significance. To convey the gravity of this topic, the Quran identifies the factors that lead to moral decline as well as the solutions to overcome these problems. According to Quranic verses, selfish desires, heedlessness, suspicion and greed are listed as causes of moral decline. On the other hand, believing in God wholeheartedly, avoiding sin, fearing divine punishment and doing justice are presented as solutions to overcome moral decay. This article employs a descriptive-analytical approach to study and analyze the causes of moral decline and their solutions from a Quranic perspective, using religious texts as a basis for content analysis. This interdisciplinary study combines topics from morality, law, sociology and the Quran, reflecting a widely accepted method of thematic interpretation in modern times.
Copyright (c) 2024 i.f.d. Nicat Yəhyazadə https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0
Depression and the Influence of Religion on it
Depression, a topic of ongoing concern, is a psychological disorder that affects many people worldwide. Our main objective in writing this article is to explore the role of religion in the treatment of depression and its various components. The focus of our topic is individuals who suffer from depression, regardless of age, as the prevalence of depression continues to rise. Our article will also address the history of depression, including historical accounts of notable figures. Additionally, we will examine the various sub-conditions of depression, such as postpartum depression, depression during illness and others. We will provide extensive information on depressive and bipolar disorder cases, including their characteristics, causes and courses. Furthermore, we will investigate modern treatment methods for these psychological conditions, including clinical, therapeutic, physiological and other approaches. Some interesting methods include music therapy, pastoral therapy and magnetic wave therapy. Religion is an integral part of human life, and numerous studies have explored its impact on depression. We will review articles and studies on the effect of religion on depression and investigate its role in the treatment process. We will also explain the use of psychological and physiological methods in treating depression. According to scientific studies, depressive cases are less common among religious individuals. Moreover, religious practices have been shown to have a positive effect on individuals struggling with substance addiction. Religion serves as a moral support system, encouraging people to adopt a healthy lifestyle. These factors have a positive impact on human psychology.
Copyright (c) 2024 Ənvər Hüseynov https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0
The Theoretical Problems of Civil Religion and Political Religion: A Comparative Analysis of the Concepts of Civil Religion by J.J.Rousseau, E.Durkheim and R.Bellah
In this article, the concept of civil religion, a significant issue in social sciences, is comparatively examined in the context of the theories of J. J. Rousseau, E. Durkheim, and R. Bellah. To summarize, the concept of civil religion, defined as the sacralization of the state and nation, was first introduced by Rousseau, but subsequent research by Durkheim and Bellah transformed it into a relevant issue. This article compares J. J. Rousseau’s political religion approach with E. Durkheim’s concept of cultural and social civil religion. Furthermore, the theoretical problems associated with the concepts of civil religion and political religion are analyzed in modern sociological literature. The author argues that despite some researchers using the terms civil religion and political religion interchangeably, most scholars employ civil religion to refer to a set of values, beliefs and ceremonies that are formed by society itself. In contrast, political religion is primarily used to describe a set of beliefs imposed by totalitarian regimes, suppressing all beliefs and ideas other than the ruling ideology and considering them as rivals. Additionally, the article briefly reviews the opinions of researchers who criticize the theory of civil religion. Concerning the formation of civil religion in Azerbaijan, the author notes that, as in modern nation-states, various elements of civil religion are observed in Azerbaijan. For instance, respect for the national flag and national anthem, the concept of homeland, and instilling values such as martyrdom can be cited as examples. However, the author believes that associating these ideas and ceremonies with traditional religions, particularly Islam, suggests that independent civil religion in Azerbaijan is still in its early stages of development and it is not yet possible to speak of a complete and independent civil religion.
Copyright (c) 2024 s.f.d., dos. Asəf Qənbərov https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0
Issues of Jurisprudential Fundamentals relied upon by Sheikh Khair al-Din al-Ramli al-Hanafi in his Letters“Presentation and Clarification”
This article offers a study of the usul al-fiqh principles relied upon by Sheikh Khair al-Din al-Ramli in his letters, analyzing these principles and exploring their influence on his fiqh approach. The article aims to provide a comprehensive understanding of the Sheikh’s fiqh methodology. The preface introduces Sheikh Khair al-Din al-Ramli, his teachers, and his students as well as the significance of studying the letters of scholars, particularly those of Sheikh Khair al-Din al-Ramli. The article then discusses two main research areas. The first section examines the sources of usul al-fiqh principles cited by Sheikh Khair al-Din al-Ramli in his letters and their impact on his fiqh vision. The second section presents the specific usul al-fiqh issues that introduced the Sheikh’s fiqh approach, including the impossibility of multiple, equal opinions from a mujtahid, inference from textual indications, the precedence of Sahabi sayings and the generality of every and any. The article concludes by summarizing its main findings, focusing on the fact that Sheikh Khair al-Din al-Ramli strengthened his fiqh vision by deriving it from usul al-fiqh principles. Moreover, the letters of past Islamic scholars contain valuable information that can be compared to contemporary scholarly research, emphasizing the importance of paying attention to these sources.
Copyright (c) 2024 AYMAN A. A. ALMABHOUH https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0
The Source Value of Tafsir al-Jalaleyn in the interpretive translation attributed to Akif (in the Example of Surah al-Fatiha and al-Baqarah)
The subject of our article is to explore the similarities between the Tafsir al-Jalaleyn and the interpretive translation attributed to Mehmet Akif Ersoy, as well as the extent of his utilization of the Tafsir al-Jalaleyn, specifically focusing on Surahs al-Fatiha and al-Baqarah. Mehmet Akif’s interpretive translation spans from Surah al-Fatiha to the end of Sura al-Tawba. Unlike translations written during that period, Mehmet Akif's translation prominently features a literary style. Despite facing numerous challenges, including living abroad in Egypt for many years, Mehmet Akif composed his translation, which remained undisclosed for almost a quarter of a century. After concerns were alleviated, the translation was published and gained recognition in journals, theses, articles, and encyclopedias, piquing the curiosity of researchers. It is reported that Mehmet Akif read the Tafsir al-Jalaleyn nineteen times. Consequently, it is necessary for our article also to include information about Mahalli and Suyuti, the authors of Tafsir al-Jalaleyn. The research begins with brief information regarding both authors of Tafsir al-Jalaleyn, their academic backgrounds, and Mehmet Akif's interpretive translation. Subsequently, Mehmet Akif's translation of the Quran and the methodology he followed in this translation are examined. Following these introductory reminders, Mehmet Akif's interpretive translation of the Quran is compared to Tafsir al-Jalaleyn within the context of Surah Al-Fatiha and Surah Al-Baqarah. In this comparison, findings have been obtained regarding the extent to which Mehmet Akif utilized Tafsir al-Jalaleyn and the degree of similarities observed. Findings regarding the extent to which Mehmet Akif utilized Tafsir al-Jalaleyn, and identification of similarities between the two have been obtained in this comparative analysis. Based on these findings, a special interest, similarity, preference, reference, or parallelism to Tafsir al-Jalaleyn have been observed in interpretive translation attributed to Mehmet Akif. However, it should also be noted that Mehmet Akif's interest in or allegiance to Tafsir al- Jalaleyn in his interpretive translation was not blind. He blended the method of Tafsir al-Jalaleyn with his own unique method and style in his translation.
Copyright (c) 2024 DR. MURAD SEFEROĞLU https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0
The Imamiyyah Concept of “Sahabah” and the Attitude of Early Imamiyyah Commentators (I-IV/VI-X Centuries) to the Interpretation of the Sahabah
The sahabah (companions) have an important place in the history of interpretation. These individuals, who grew up with the Holy Prophet (pbuh) also witnessed the reasons for the revelation of the verses. In addition, the Qur'an has been revealed in Arabic and most of the Companions were Arabs. All these facts have made the Companions have a say in interpretation. For that very reason, the interpretations of the Companions became one of the crucial sources for interpretations of the Ahl al-Sunnah narrations. The concept of "companions" of Ahl al-Sunnah also has a significant role in this matter. The attitude of the Imamiyyah commentators to the interpretation of the Companions is different from that of the Ahl al-Sunnah. Especially, the interpretation of narrations transmitted by the Companions are a minority in the early Imamiyyah tafsirs. Imamiyyah exegetes preferred Imams of Ahl al-Bayt instead of Companions in the matter of narrating the orders of the Holy Prophet (pbuh). Commentators have also highlighted the attitude of the Companions, whose opinions they conveyed, to the Ahl al-Bayt. The Shia interpretation that arose during the Tabi’in period (II/VIII centuries) passed through four stages. The early period, including the I-IV/VI-X centuries, is known as the stage of formation and development of Shia interpretation. The interpretations produced during that time were predominantly narrative in nature. Only a small number of early Shia interpretations have managed to survive until the present day. Studies show that early Imamiyyah commentators tended to overlook the interpretation of the Companions. Undoubtedly, their concept of "companion" has a role in this matter. According to Imamiyyah, in contrast to the Ahl al-Sunnah, not all companions are fair. In their opinion, the Companions are ordinary individuals, and some of them are fair and some of them are not. It can be said that the attitude of the early Imamiyyah commentators to the interpretation of the Companions the main role belongs to the notion of “imamate”. According to the Imamiyyah, the Imamate is a divine position that succeeds the Prophet (pbuh), wherein the appointment to this role is in the will of God and His Messenger, and it claims that the imams are infallible, possess ilmeladunni (God-given knowledge), and inherit the heritage of the Holy Prophet. As in other fields of Islamic science, the Imamiyyah considered the imams to be the main source of tafsir and kept the Companions in the background.
Copyright (c) 2024 i.f.d., dos. Aslan Həbibov https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0
Descriptive Comparison of Baydawi`s Tafsir in Manuscript Copies in Azerbaijan
The commentator, whose real name was Abu Said Abd Allah b. Mohammad al-Baydawi al-Shirazi authored numerous works in Islamic studies and garnered attention for his scholarly activities. “Anwar al-Tanzil wa Asrar al-Ta'wil” written on tafsir by Naser al-Din Baydawi, who is also known as an Azerbaijani scholar, gained recognition as one of the most-read books. Despite facing criticism for his work that was compact and concise in accordance with the literary style of its time, Baydawi’s tafsir remains one of the most perused tafsir books. Consequently, this book, commonly taught in madrasas as a textbook, was read annually under the title of “Tranquility Lessons” during Ramadan in the Ottoman era. In addition, it is the work of interpretation that has the most commentaries and annotations written on it. This article focuses on the descriptive study of manuscript copies of the two-volume work titled “Anwar al-Tanzil wa Asrar al-Ta'wil”, which are stored in the archive of the Institute of Manuscripts at the Azerbaijan National Academy of Sciences, named after Muhammad Fuzuli. These manuscript copies, written in scripts such as “Naskh”, “Nastalig” and “Rigi”, contain various surahs. The manuscripts were written in Arabic on polished or half-polished white and blue papers, which are primarily European or Eastern in origin. Moreover, the majority of these manuscripts cover the first volume, while there are exactly three manuscript copies in total, although the work spans two volumes. In general, this article covers sixty-one manuscript copies, providing details such as script style and inventory numbers, along with brief information and comparisons between them. Although some of these copies, most of which were warped, share the same script style in their registration, they differ in surahs, dates, and scribes. Furthermore, some of these manuscripts lack inventory numbers, scribe names, and years. It becomes challenging to obtain comprehensive information, especially from manuscripts with incomplete beginnings or endings. In conclusion, the extensive annotations and commentaries written on “Anwar al-Tanzil wa Asrar al-Ta'wil”, along with the numerous manuscript copies, demonstrate that it is one of the most read tafsir books.
Copyright (c) 2024 Ənvər Mustafayev https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0
The Religious Status of Women in the Old Testament, Veiling According to the Jewish Holy Books
The role of women in creation and religious life according to Jewish primary sources, as well as the tradition of women's veiling according to Jewish holy books, are investigated in the article. Such a subject has been addressed in order to contribute to the History of religions in our country. Additionally, it intends to convey the information that women should veil in other religions as well through Judaism to those who limit the veil only to Islam. This article is research based on a literature review. The study consists of an abstract, an introduction, three subheadings, a conclusion and a bibliography. The creation of women in the Old Testament has been analyzed according to Yahwist and Elohist texts. In both texts, the story of the creation of women is described differently. Specifically, in the Elohist text, women are presented as equal to men, whereas in the Yahwist text, they are described as servants to men. The religious status of women in the Old Testament includes issues such as individual and congregational worship of Jewish women, Torah reading, Torah teaching and learning, and women's prayer groups. Unlike men, in individual worship, women are not permitted to recite all the prayers during worship, nor they can wear tefillin and tzitzit. Women are not counted as part of the congregation and cannot read or teach the Torah. Women are only required to light the Hanukkah candle, recite Kiddush on Shabbat evenings, fast on Yom Kippur, and fulfill a few other commandments. The Old Testament, the Mishnah, and the Talmud contain information about the veiling of women. The veils of free and chaste women were distinguished from those of prostitutes, slaves, and concubines. While free women wore veils, prostitutes used colorful and different styles of covering. The hair of married slave women was cut to make them more distinguishable. Although in the course of time wigs replaced the veil, today only Orthodox women wear wigs during prayer.
Copyright (c) 2024 Pəri Ələsgərova https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0
Unity, Knowledge, Encouraging Virtue and Dissuading Wicked­ness as Moral Values in “Kashf ul-Haqaiq”
Since human is a social being, in addition to meeting his material and physical needs, he should acquire moral values ​​and apply them in his personal and social life. Moral values ​​are closely related to the spirituality of a person. Preserving and transmitting these values to future generations is a fundamental responsibility for every believer and patriot. A society that fails to maintain and develop moral values may ​​face adversities, troubles, and humiliation. However, adhering to these values ​​can lead to tremendous accomplishments in many fields. Because of being vital, moral values ​​are mostly instilled in society by authoritative people. Mir Muhammad Karim al-Bakuvi was also one of the influential personalities in promoting our moral values ​​in Azerbaijan. Through his eloquent writing style and dedicated engagement in public affairs, he advocated for moral values and made invaluable contributions to various branches of study. The main purpose of the article is to reveal the interpretation of "Kashf ul-haqaiq" and its author's contribution to our moral values and to study his influence on these values, at least partially. In the article, moral values, particularly promoting unity, valuing education, encouraging virtue, and dissuading wickedness attract the author's attention. The interpretation of "Kashf ul-Haqaiq" was also examined from this point of view. These three moral values ​​are more important than others. Unity stands out as a crucial factor that protects society from fragmentation and division. Education also plays a key role in the formation of other moral values ​​in society. Furthermore, encouraging virtue and dissuading wickedness has an incomparable effect on the realization of justice in social life. The article was studied descriptive-analytically, based on content analysis, utilizing religious texts.
Encouraging Virtue and Dissuading Wickedness
Islamism and Islamic-Turkish Unityin the Worldview of Hashim bey Vazirov
The article examines Islamism, Islamic unity, Islamic-Turkish unity, Eurocentrism, modernization, and other issues that occupy an important place in the worldview of Azerbaijani thinker Hashim Bey Vazirov. In Vazirov's standpoint, the new essence of Islam, the importance of Islamic unity, and its adaptation to the conditions of the modern era are of great importance. The thinker regarded enlightenment as a crucial tool for the national awakening of the Azerbaijani people and advocated for religious reforms in society. H.B. Vazirov, while criticizing the Muslim world, which has been in decline for the past centuries, avoided radicalism and strived to approach these issues carefully. The main target of Vazirov's criticism was not Islam itself, but rather hypocritical clergymen speaking on behalf of that religion. The thinker focused on reforming and uniting Muslims to adapt to the requirements of the modern era. His thoughts on the Islamic religion show that, as a public figure, he was confident and hopeful about the awakening of the Muslim world and its transition from darkness to light. From this point of view, Vazirov's thoughts about Islam and Islamism remain extremely relevant even in contemporary times. It is mentioned in the article that Vazirov in time observed that Islam and Turkism, especially Islam, were subjected to criticism by many people in the Western world, and he tried to provide appropriate explanations. In any case, the attitude of the Western world towards Islam and Turkism, approximately 100 years ago, remains largely unchanged even today. In fact, the true face of the Western world, which brought culture, democracy, and freedom to Islamic countries, including Turkish geography, was entirely different. The struggle of Vazirov, who recognized this truth long ago and endeavored to expose the true nature of the West, is quite commend­able.​
Copyright (c) 2024 f.f.d., dos. Faiq Ələkbərli https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0
Ottoman Tahrir Notes and Notebooks in Gangja-Karabagh Province
The tahrir notebooks (tax registers), which were created to collect the government sources of revenue and tax on a regular basis, are inva­luable sources of statistical data to study history, ethnography, demog­raphy, the tax system and other problems of the ancient Ottoman geography. As a result, these notebooks are the most valuable collection of Ottoman archives in our time. Having historical, geographical, economic, and ot­her significance, these notebooks were studied and published in Turkey, Azerbaijan, Hungary, Yugoslavia, Bulgaria, Albania, Georgia, Syria, and Jordan. Tahrir books were primarily compiled in the form of detailed bo­oks, review books, and awqaf books on Ottoman tax practice. Impor­tant information about the social, historical, geographical, and economic situation of the relevant administrative units was recorded in these, particularly in the detailed notebooks. The rules for the distribution of land among the sipahis, as well as the names of landowners, were written in the review notebooks. Despite its short duration, the Ganja-Karabakh region was temporarily under Ottoman rule twice, and in both cases, the population census (tahrir) was conducted in the Ottoman province. The Ottoman Prime Minister’s Archive currently houses four tahrir notebooks discovered during the census in Ganja-Ka­rabakh province. As they contain very valuable information, the tahrir notebooks compiled during the Ottoman period are invaluable resources of special importance for the study of the historical, geographical, social, religious, ethnic, economic, etc. problems of the relevant geography. The primary goal of this article is to introduce the Ottoman tahrir system (population census) and the tahrir notebooks that emerged as a result of the tahrir conducted in the Ganja-Karabakh province during Ottoman rule (1588-1606 and 1725-1735 years).
Copyright (c) 2024 Səadət Abdurahmanova https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0
Sources used in Nasir al-Din Baydawi’s “Anwar al-Tanzil wa asrar al-Ta’wil”
This article provides sources of Nasir al-Din Baydawi's famous work of tafsir “Anwar al-Tanzil wa asrar al-Ta’wil”. Baydawi is one of the renowned scholars of the 13th century (7th century AH). He drew attention to some of the more intricate aspects of the Arabic language, such as nahw (Arabic grammar), sarf (morphology), and eloquence, as well as various types of recitations (qira’at), and also cited quotes from the works of previous tafseer scholars. In his tafseer he also used examples from poetry. In addition, he gave special attention to Islamic sciences such as kalam, fiqh, and hadith. This article primarily studies the sources of tafseer, hadith, fiqh, and kalam of Baydawi's tafseer work. The sources for the work come primarily from Zamakhshari’s “al- Kashshaf”, Fakhreddin al-Razi's “Mafatih al-Ghayib” and Raghib al-Isfahani’s “al- Mufradat”. The work has even come under criticism for its stri­king similarity to Zamakhshari’s al-Kashshaf. However, Baydawi disag­rees with Zamakhshari on kalam and fiqh issues. Baydawi explained the verses according to Ashari’s creed, whereas Zamakhshari explained them according to Mutazila principles. When expressing his objections, Baydawi did not mention Zamakhshari’s name directly; instead, he used phrases such as “It was said” or “Mutazila said”, and other words and phrases. In terms of hadith sources of the work, it can be said that Baydawi used the same hadiths as Zamakhshari. He faced criticism for that very reason. To put it simply, he created a short, concise, and outstanding piece that was relevant to Baydawi’s era. Due to its complex sentence structure and topics, the work is considered to be one of the tafseer works with the most comments written on it. Despite this, the work was the most readable tafseer book of its century, the Ottoman period, and it is still used in madrasas today as a teaching aid.
References of Ayn al-Qudat al-Mayanaji's (d. 525/1131)Theory of Noor and Ishraq
One of the most distinctive features of the martyred saint (weli al-shahid) Ayn al-Qudat al-Mayanaji (d. 525/1131), the Azerbaijani scholar in irfan (gnostic discipline in Islam), the outstanding philosopher of the medieval Islamic world, is that he used Islamic revelation and cultural heritage as a reference while presenting his views and building his system. It can be said that in the history of Islamic thought, the Azerbaijani philosopher, the martyred weli Ayn al- Qudat al-Mayanaji, is one of the thinkers who most appropriately and duly used the Qur’an and Islamic cultural heritage to form his own view of existence and system of thoughts. Mayanaji systematised his views on existence, creation, noor (light), ishraq (brightness) and zuhur (appearance) on the axis of Islamic revelation and cultural heritage. In this respect, it is difficult or even impossible to associate his system and views with a movement outside the Islamic tra­dition of thought or with the schools of ancient or Greek philosophy. His unique system and views had a significant influence on his successors, and provided the theoretical basis for Suhrawardi's theory of ishraq and Ibn al-Arabi's theory of wahdat. Miyanaji was not only a saint with a powerful spiritual vision who comp­rehended the Qur'ān and wisdom, but also a philosopher with the power of rational analysis to put forward original propositions on creation, exis­tence, reason and knowledge, which were not common in previous Isla­mic thinkers. In this sense, it is of great importance that the basic concepts such as "noor" and "zuhuhr" on which al-Mayanaji built his system of existence and theorized it, become objects of research in the context of Islamic revelation and cultural heritage.
Copyright (c) 2024 Mehmet Emin Koç https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0
Plato and Aristotle’s Thoughts on the Soul and its Relations to the Body
This paper examines the concept of “soul” of the most famous philosophers in the history of philosophy - Plato and Aristotle - and the philosophers' thoughts on the quality of the relationship between the soul and the body. In addition to referring to a number of Plato's works, the article uses his dialogue "Phaedo" and Aristotle's "De Anima" as a basis. Plato has been a defender of dualism in the history of philosophy, and his position is still recognized today. Sometimes he has been considered a philosopher who systematized dualism. The work in which Plato explicitly supports and discusses this idea is the dialogue "Phaedo". Based on the arguments about the simplicity of the human soul in the dialogue "Phaedo", its existence before and independent of the body, it is possible to say that Plato saw the soul as an independent substance that can exist separately from the body, without needing it. However, in some of his other dialogues, he divides the soul into different parts, lea­ding some to believe that the philosopher has abandoned his previous theory. This paper states that, while Plato’s concept of an immaterial soul is not as clear in his dialogues as it is in "Phaedo", this does not imply that he rejected the dualistic approach entirely. Un­like Plato, Aristotle takes a more scientific approach, defines the soul as the perfection and entelechy of a natural body. According to him, the soul is not matter, the body is not soul, but the latter owns the former, or, to put it another way, the body has a soul. The body, which contains the potential for life, is matter for the soul, but the soul is the form or actuality of the body. No­netheless, unlike Plato, Aristotle believes that the body and soul are not two independent substances separate from each other.
Copyright (c) 2024 İbrahim Bağırov https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0
The primary goal of this article is to discuss one of the types of ijtihad, collective ijtihad. The subject has been studied under two main headings. The first section of the article discusses the definition, emergence, and significance of collective ijtihad. Therefore, this section first explains the dictionary and term meanings of the words “ijtihad” and “collective (majmai)”, and then the expression “collective ijtihad”. Following that, the reasons for using the term "collective ijtihad" as well as other terms commonly used to express this type of ijtihad in methodology are exami­ned, and information about the conditions of collective ijtihad is provided. Furthermore, the mentioned chapter discusses the historical stage of ijti­had from the time of the sahaba to the present. The first section of the article concluded with a discussion of the significance of collective ijtihad. The legitimacy and the provisions, as well as the forms and distinguishing features of collective ijtihad are studied in the second part of the article, taking advantage of the conditions of individual ijtihad, referring to the words and behaviors of the Sahaba and Tabiun, in addition to the book and sunnah. The article concludes with the findings.
Copyright (c) 2024 Məhəmməd Süleyman https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0
The Historical Formation Process of the Concept of Ummah: Analysis from the Perspective of the Past and Modern Era
The concept of ummah, which reflects the form of social unity formed in the modern era on the basis of Islamic religion, is discussed in the context of a historical approach in the article. The author's main goal in the article is to examine the historical meanings in which the term was used until it was used in accordance with its current meaning, and to determine the specific period in which the term "ummah" was used in accordance with its intended purpose by comparing the past and present. From this perspective, the author divides the article into three parts, analyzing both etymological and Quranic examples. Thus, the first part of the article is devoted to the study of the etymological origin of the term, and in this context, the reasons for the diversity of opinions among scholars are investigated. The second part of the article examines the reasons for the difficulty in assigning a specific meaning to the term using examples from the Qur’an. According to the research conducted on the subject, it can be determined that the examples of the term in the holy book did not only reflect the unity of people formed based on the Islamic religion. According to the research done on the subject, the examples of the term in the holy book did not only reflect the unity of people formed based on the Islamic religion. It also symbolized the unity of other living beings who coexist with humans as well as the unity of non-Muslims. In the third part of the study, the author attempts to pinpoint the precise time when the concept of ummah began to be used in its modern sense. By comparing the Meccan and Medinan periods of the Qur'an, it is concluded that, while the number of examples of the term is greater in the third Meccan period, the period when the concept of ummah reflects Islamic religious identity in accordance with its modern meaning is in the Medinan perid of the Qur’an.
Copyright (c) 2024 Türkan Məmmədova https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0
The article examines the attitude towards the Holy Quran, in general, the concept of revelation, prophecy, and the Holy Book in the Bektashi branch of Sufism, which focuses on the inter­nal exploration of human existence and creation and adopts the goal of achieving perfection for mankind. It draws attention to the belief principles in the appro­ach to the Holy Quran, as well as its reflection, place, and importance in worship and evaluation in the person of significant figures in the Bek­tashi order. It also analyzes the inner and mystical interpretations of extracts from the Holy Quran based on specific examples. The concept of the Holy Quran is described in general in the tafsir works attributed to the foun­der of the Bektashi order, Hajji Bektash Vali, titled “Tafsir of Fatiha”, “Tafsir of Basmala” and “The Makalat” as well as in some other sources, edicts, and com­mands. Furthermore, several verses used as proofs and references in these or other sources have been defined and explained, the inner Sufi interpretations (explanations) of the specific verses mentioned in the works based on the Bektashi belief system have been shown, and the interaction and contact with other principles of faith have been examined. Apart from this, the concept of “revelation” formed as a poetic element in Bektashi poetry, which is a part of Sufism literature, the concepts of prophecy and the Qur’an were looked over within the framework of the po­etic examples of several poets—Yemini, Yunus Amre, Ashiq Veli, Gul Nasimi, and Pir Sultan Abdal—and the special attitude of these poets towards the Holy Book was reviewed. The article concludes by mentioning the comprehensive findings of this research on the Holy Quran in the Bektashi order.
Copyright (c) 2024 Emin Orucov https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0
Turkism and Islamism in Alabbas Muznib’s World View
The article highlights how Turkism, Islamism, modernization, national language, and other issues have influenced Azerbaijani Turkish thinker Alabbas Muznib’s worldview. Criticism of conservatism and keeping up with modern-day conditions were particularly important in A. Muznib’s views. Thus, A. Muznib saw enlightenment as an important step toward the national awakening of the Azerbaijani people and advocated for social reforms. While criticizing the Muslim world, which has been in decline in recent centuries, A. Muznib has never been radical and has tried to tread lightly in these matters. Muznib’s main target was not the Islamic religion itself, but hypocritical clerics speaking on its behalf. Muznib focused on reforming Muslims to adapt to modern-day students. Muznib’s thoughts on Islam and the Islamic religion show that he was optimistic about the Islamic world awakening and transitioning from darkness to light. In this regard, Muznib’s ideas about Islamism at the time are still very relevant today. At the same time, Turkism was interpreted within the con­text of A. Muznib’s social and political views, and his thoughts on the future of the Turkic world, including the people of Azerbaijan, were exami­ned. Thus, Muznib attempted to convey to his compatriots the importance of understanding Turkism, and he believed that the Azerbaijani people would regain independence based it. We value Alabbas Muznib’s conclusions on Turkism, Turkish unity, and Turanian ideology. Muznib’s conclusions and considerations on these issues, in our opinion, are as relevant today as they were a century ago. His writings on the place and role of Azerbaijan and Azerbaijani Turks in the realization of Turkish unity, in particular, remain relevant.
Copyright (c) 2024 Faiq Ələkbərli https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0
Explanatory Translation of the Names “Huwa” and “Allah” in the Manuscript Copy of the Work “Sharh Asma Allah Al-Husna”
After the independence of the Republic of Azerbaijan, the prohibitions imposed by the Soviet Union on the Islamic religion and its research began to lose their legal significance. Exactly after that, the study, research, and translation of works related to the Islamic religion became widespread in our country. As a result of conducting such studies in the treasury of the Institute of Manuscripts named after Muhammad Fuzuli of the Azerbaijan National Academy of Sciences (ANAS), the study of hundreds of works related to the sciences of Islamic religion, such as tafsir, tajvid, hadith, fiqh, kalam makes its scientific contribution not only in terms of textual studies but also in terms of theology. The work “Sharh Asma’Allah al-Husna” by Sadr al-Din al-Qunawi (d. 673 AH/1274 AD), belonging to the Islamic religion that is preserved in the Insti­tute of Manuscripts, refers to the beautiful names of Allah, which is a controversial topic in the science of kalam. Here, the scholar presented both the interpretation of the ninety-nine beautiful names of Allah included in Asma al-Husna, and their explanation through kashf (self-unveiling) and mushadah (one’s obser­vation) in Sufism. Al-Qunawi revealed the ways for human beings to unders­tand Allah deeply through the names of Allah. The manuscript copies of this work are found in many manuscript treasures and libraries of the world. The copy found in Azerbaijan is believed to have been copied app­roximately in the 17th century, based on its polygraphic and other characteristics. In the article, the “Introduction” of the work, as well as the names “Huwa” and “Allah” have been translated from Arabic into Azerbaijani for the first time with explanations. Be­fore the introduction, Al-Qunawi explained the reasons for writing this work. In the introduction, he gave a general explanation of the beautiful names of Allah in Sufism and the external and internal meanings of the famous hadith of the Prophet Muhammad about Asma al-Husna. Then, in addition to the broad interpretation of the names “Huwa” and “Allah”, he also, in stages interpreted the letters that make up these names and the combinations of these letters from the point of view of Sufism.
Asma al-Husna (Beautiful Names of Allah)
Copyright (c) 2024 Yeganə Rəhnulla https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0
Carl Rogers’s Biography and the Concept of “Self”
There were several trends in the development of the history of modern psychology, one of which is humanistic psychology. Abra­ham Maslow and Rogers are regarded as the co-founders of humanistic psychology. Thanks to their collaborative efforts, humanistic psychology has reached a systematic state. Rogers considered the “theory of the Self” as an important component of personality structure. Central to Rogers” personality theory is the notion of self or self-concept. This is defined as “the organized, consistent set of perceptions and beliefs about oneself.” The idea of self or self-concept is fundamental to Rogers' theory of personality.This is described as "the structured, coherent collection of self-perceptions and beliefs." The humanistic phrase for our individuality is the self.The self, often known as the soul or Freud's psyche, is our inner personality.A person's life events and how they interpret them have an impact on their sense of self.Childhood experiences and external evaluations are two major factors that shape our self-concept. Rogers asserts that we seek to feel, experience, and act in ways that are compatible with our ideal selves, or how we would like to be perceived. Our sense of self-worth increases with the degree of consistency or congruence between our ideal self and self-image. According to Rogers, psychological well-being and our chances of reaching our objectives, aspirations, and self-actualization are closely related to how we view ourselves and our sense of self-worth.We can view self-worth as a continuum that spans from extremely high to extremely low. From the point of view of Carl Rogers, a person with high self-confidence, that is, with self-confidence and positive feelings, who faces difficulties in life, sometimes accepts failures and misfortunes, and is open to people.
Copyright (c) 2023 Şəms Ağazadə https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0
Religious Studies and Theology: Definitions,Methods, Problems and Mutual Relations
One of the topics that is still significant today is the accurate study and teaching of religion. In this article, we aimed to examine the definitions, key concepts, methodologies, and interrelationships of the two scientific disciplines that study religion: theology and religious studies. As previously said, theology and religious studies are subjects that rese­arch religion and are linked, but they view the topics from distinct perspectives. Although theology is an aspect of religious studies and religious studies is an aspect of theology, the methodologies of the two disciplines differ greatly. Thus, theology is a branch of science that studies the nature of God and religious beliefs, while religious studies research religion as a social and cultural phenomenon. The essay in­vestigates the methodologies used by the aforementioned disciplines, as well as the current concerns and problems confronting both fields. It is emphasized that both research domains use scientific approaches to tackle their challenges, combining diverse viewpoints and expertise. In addition, the names and works of well-known researchers in the discipli­nes of religious studies and theology are offered as examples. Furthermore, the article defines the key terminology of these two dis­ciplines, examines their similarities and differences, determines if they belong to the same topic or not, and investigates the mutual relations­hips between these two domains.
Copyright (c) 2024 Aliyə Mürsəlova https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0
Akhbarism: Moderate and Extremist Akhbaris During the Safavid Era
This article was written using both ancient and modern sources. The goal is to study Akbarism and some of its representatives who held a moderate and extremist position during the Safavid state. The lack of in­formation on this topic is a scientific breakthrough in the field of study. Akhbarism, one of the Islamic schools of thought, was founded in the 4th century of Hijra - during the period of Imam Mahdi’s disappearance, and after several stages, it was systematized in the 10th-11th centuries of Hijra. Akhbaris are referred to as “Akhbari” because they placed grea­ter emphasis on hadith (akhbar). Sheikh Saduq - al-Awwal, Sheikh Saduq - al-Sani, and Sheikh Kulaini are widely regarded as the first akhbaris. They not only had a akhbari position and some dissenting opinions, but they also wrote some of the most important Shia source books. This school of thought weakened after the early akhbaris, giving way to the school of thought called “usulism”, which is the exact opposite of Akhbarism. The usuli direction of thought began during the reign of the Safavid state in Azerbaijan and continued until the appearance of Muhammad Amin al-Astarabadi, who systematized akhbarism, which led to the spread and dominance of this school of thought among scholars. Astra­badi systematized Akhbarism in his work “Fawaid al-Madaniyyah”. This work has since become one of the most important books for akhbaris. Unlike the early akhbaris, some scholars with akhbari thought, which became dominant again with Astrabadi, took a firm stance and engaged in heated debates with usuli scholars. At the same time, after Astrabadi, most of the representatives of Akhbarism, which was resystematized during the Safavid era, took a more moderate path. Allama Muhammad Baqir al- Majlisi and Sheikh al-Hurr al-Amili were two of the most well-known. Unlike Astarabadi, these people had friendly relations with the usuli scholars. However, they did not hesitate to criticize and bring evidence against their usuli scholars. Following Astarabadi, there were those who were not only affected by his reviving akhbarism, but also were those who were affected by his rigid position, bigotry, and harsh treatment. Abdulla al-Samahiji, one of them, was stricter and more bigoted than Astrabadi. Hurr al-Amili and Abdulla al- Samahiji, moderate and extremist akhbari scholars, re­vealed the difference between usulis and akhbaris in their works “Fawaid al-Tusiyyah” and “Munyat al-Mumarisin”.
Copyright (c) 2024 Məhəmməd Məmmədov https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0